The Arrow versus the Bullet

Warfare was relatively simple on early Middle Age battlefields. Different tactics were used throughout this time period. Medieval Europe also saw the introduction of innovations that changed the battlefield. Simple items like stirrups or the complex, such as castle architecture, caused warriors to adapt in order to succeed. This era may have begun with arrows, but it ended with gunpowder. Can you imagine a contemporary battle fought by archers? The end of the Middle Ages was the beginning of modern weaponry and warfare. These developments were gradual and were usually in response to new technology.

The Romans had experimented with combinations of cavalry and infantry. The Byzantine Empire used diverse tactics and weapons in its warfare. Dismounted cavalry mixed with infantry was used against mounted enemies. Medieval armies were usually divided into three sections consisting of a front, a middle and a rear unit. The front employed long range weapons such as catapults or arrows. Archers would fire simultaneously in large numbers. Arrows were used to soften heavy infantry and to create an opening, allowing cavalry to charge the flank.[i] The centre would usually contain infantry with heavy cavalry to follow after the long range attacks. The rear was composed of light cavalry which had the ability to move quickly towards where they were required during a battle.[ii]

One of the greatest inventions that changed warfare was not a weapon; it was the stirrup. Prior to Medieval warfare, horsemen were generally used as scouts. A heavy horseman would have great difficulty staying on a horse; therefore they were rarely used in battle. A foot soldier could easily knock a cavalryman off his horse. The momentum of a missed swing from a heavy broadsword could cause someone to lose their balance and fall off a horse. The stirrup stabilized the mounted soldier and gave him an advantage over the infantry. A mounted soldier also required more training than a foot soldier. Many years of preparation were spent to develop the skills necessary to ride a horse in battle. It also took time to train the horse. Horseman usually rode in a tight formation with lances. A foot soldier would easily be crushed by a cavalry charge similar to a tank rolling on a modern battlefield.[iii]

[i] Archer Jones, The Art of War in the Western World, (Chicago: University of Illinois Press) p.623

[ii] Ibid., pp. 26-28

[iii] Bert S. Hall, Weapons and Warfare in Renaissance Europe, (Baltimore: John Hopkins University Press) p.12

Horsemen usually dismounted and fought next to infantrymen, prior to the stirrup. Muslims attempted to expand their territory beyond Spain into Frankish territory, but were unsuccessful. The Muslims attempted to shock the Frankish army with their cavalry. The Frankish cavalry dismounted and fought alongside their infantry and were successful in defending their territory. During the eighth century, the stirrup became available in Europe. The Franks quickly adapted this new technology. Since there was no longer a standing army in Europe, horsemen were extremely effective in battle. This effectiveness raised the value of cavalry during battle.[i]

Newer weapons require new defensive tactics. Horses may be effective in an open battlefield but thick walls provided protection from a cavalry attack. Fortifications became stronger. Rome and Greece had large organized armies for protection. Medieval armies were smaller and therefore depended heavily on fortifications. There were many different raiders during medieval Europe including the Vikings and the Mongols, further increasing the need for fortification. These fortresses were similar to modern bunkers which provide protection from tanks and some security against artillery. Castles would also serve an offensive role by providing a base of operations for armies on the move. Protection for armies could also be sought at these fortifications. Castles were also symbols of wealth and power as well as administration and political centers.[ii]

Attacks against fortifications needed to be modified since walls were made of stone. Pickaxes, hatchets and iron tipped stakes were used to loosen stones from walls. Battering rams became necessary for destroying gaits or draw bridges. Castle technology adapted to these attacks with multiple walls. Architecture in castles changed from square to round. A flat wall can be damaged easier than a round one. Similar technology is applied to bunkers and tanks today. The front of a tank is slightly rounded or pointed, not flat. This deflects a blow from a projectile.

Miners would dig under the walls of a castle at its foundation. This would weaken the wall and eventually cause a collapse. Water filled ditches were placed around castles to prevent people from digging under the castle walls. Hot liquids were dumped over the walls to prevent ladders and towers from being put in place.[iii] Heavy objects could be thrown down from the walls to stop an attacker. Castle walls were built taller, making it more difficult for an attacker to scale over the fortification. The water filled ditches also prevented ladders and siege towers from being put into place. Long range weapons therefore became a necessity to storm a castle. The most common long range weapon was the arrow, but it was not effective against stone. Early in the thirteenth century, the trebuchet was developed. Projectile weapons such as a catapult or a ballista have existed since ancient Greece.[iv] The trebuchet employed the use of a counterweight and was more accurate. It was also more powerful. This additional power and accuracy was needed to combat thicker castle walls and improved architecture.[v]

The end of the Middle Ages is considered a transition period when it comes to warfare.[vi] Medieval siege warfare led to the development and the use of gunpowder in battle. Traditionally, firearms were seen as incompatible with the Middle Age tactics. The aristocracy resisted the integration of firearms. Military defense was the service that the aristocrats provide in a feudal society. Gunpowder alters this relationship of protection. A knight pledges an oath of fealty to protect and fight for his lord when asked to do so. Knights also protect the peasants on their land in exchange for service. What constitutes a knight? A knight is a military person who has spent a large portion of their life training to fight and defend. A soldier with minimal training could fell a knight with a reliable firearm. At present, a soldier is not associated with aristocracy.

A new weapon was needed to destroy castle walls; something with great power and able to create significant damage. Cannons were adopted in response to these demands. With the acceptance of gunpowder in Medieval Europe, cannons became a reality. The Ottoman Turks used cannons to capture Constantinople. The Turks built up a large arsenal of artillery and spent six weeks bombarding Constantinople’s walls. The result was many breaches in the walls protecting the city.[vii]

[i] Jones, pp. 102-105

[ii] Maurice Keen, Medieval Warfare: A History, (New York: Oxford University Press) pp. 164-165

[iii] Ibid., p. 168

[iv] Alexander Benenson, The Archeology of War, (New York: Hatherleigh Press) p. 185

[v] Keen, p. 174

[vi] Hall, p. 9

[vii] Keen, pp. 273-274

Early cannons were quite crude and did significant damage to the gunners who operated them. Unfortunately, it was not unusual for cannons to explode with barrels bursting. It was wise not to be standing close to a firing medieval cannon. Some early cannons were made of brass and consisted of a wooden frame. These big guns were therefore quite heavy and required many horses to pull them. It was not uncommon to use a dozen horses to haul a cannon to a battle or siege. Transport of the ammunition required even more horses. It took a great amount of time to transport these heavy weapons. Artillery also needed to be placed close to the walls to be effective.[i] The addition of cannons also altered castle technology. Walls became shorter to provide a smaller target and also thicker to provide strength.[ii] Today, artillery is used against fortresses similar to Medieval Europe. Fortunately, through many years of development, large guns have become much safer over the centuries. This is a direct result of the accidents from the early cannons.

Standing armies were the norm for Rome. Romans used professional soldiers that trained for warfare.[iii] Medieval knights were expected to fight for their lord when asked to do so, but they were also expected to tend to their land. Therefore, warfare tended to be seasonal. Standing armies were not popular in Medieval Europe, but made a return near the end of the middle ages. Muslims fought in large numbers. Turks used many men in addition to their artillery during the fall of Constantinople. Europe needed to adapt to a changing world and reintroduce the concept of a permanent army. The drawback of this type of military was a need for permanent funding. The Valois Kings of France were successful in raising funds for an army. The French were motivated by a truce with the English in 1445.[iv] The truce left many armed men without a reason to be paid and no organization to remove them. Soldiers were occupied during a battle but idle in peace. Leaders were appointed to select the best soldiers to disband the unruly units. Taxes were imposed to pay for these soldiers. Today, we still have permanent armies paid for by tax dollars. Soldiers are also kept occupied during peacetime to keep them prepared and out of trouble.

Battles today have many remnants of Medieval Europe. Contemporary fortresses use architecture developed during the Middle Ages. Tanks also use this concentric technology. Modern artillery has learned from the lessons of medieval gunners. Tanks use battlefield tactics similar to knights on horseback. These vehicles are also equipped with cannons that employ gunpowder. Today, soldiers use Kevlar instead of chain mail. The modern world is not that different from the medieval one.

[i] Ibid, p. 275

[ii] Ibid., p. 180

[iii] Jones, p. 93

[iv] Keen, p. 283