Despite decades of research, family violence remains a public health concern, one carrying immense emotional, psychological, medical, and social costs. Moreover, recent studies indicate that the incidence of family violence remains extremely high with no indication of a decline in the future. The reality is that such violence is part of contemporary life, found in every type and form of intimate and family relationship. Essentially, family violence continues to be a major factor, undermining the quality of life for many families. Although directed against the weak or those perceived as weak (primarily women, children and the elderly), such violence is not gender neutral nor randomly distributed, cutting across cultural, ethnic, socioeconomic, and racial lines.

Although systematic research is a complex endeavour, there seems to be no problem with research delineating factors that engender violence in the home. To date, theorists from the fields of social work, psychology, and criminology, plus others have contributed, all postulating as to the cause(s) of this phenomenon. Some regard male dominance as a major contributor, a plausible hypothesis since power and control issues are generic to all forms of violence. Others contend that exposure to violence in the family of origin is the most prevalent antecedent, classifying the witnessing of parental violence (during childhood or adolescence) as a strong correlate for wife assault in adulthood.

This contention supports the supposition that families pass violence generation to generation (i.e., the intergenerational transmission of violence), predisposing victims of childhood abuse to repeat the violence. Elder abuse would then complete the pattern (i.e., the cycle of violence) with parents and children abusing each other throughout their lives. Nonetheless, this risk variable must be recognized as problematic for two reasons. First, not all abused children grow up to be abusers, and secondly, it has not been empirically verified that elder abusers experience violence during childhood.

Besides the intergenerational transmission of violence, other variables correlate with those invariably related cited as social isolation, structural and social stress, low SES, and personality problems, and/or psychopathology. Others include crowding, stressed caregivers (for child and elder abuse), job dissatisfaction, and external stressors such as medical problems, trouble with financial resources and unemployment.

Clearly stress plays a contributing role in interpersonal violence, although a necessary element, it is usually not sufficient by itself. Many also connect the abuse of alcohol and other substances to many forms of interpersonal violence (e.g., child maltreatment, wife assault, and the violent behaviour of caregivers in elder abuse). Succinctly, both children and parents can abuse alcohol and be violent, Notwithstanding that alcohol consumption is an important factor, it is unlikely that its effect is direct and causal. Past episodes of violent behaviour have also been identified as a better-than-chance predictor, with poverty, immigration status, and prior abuse identified as risk factors for women to become battered.

Although such factors correlate with, these are not clear predictors of family violence. As such concluding that the presence of these (or other factors) in a family equivocally confirms there is violence is misguided. In fact there are pitfalls in drawing such conclusions. One is to mistake cause for effect, or vice-versa. Essentially an alleged risk (e.g., alcohol abuse, stress) may in reality be an outcome rather than an antecedent. Likewise, such variables should not be considered sole or primary reasons for violence.

In reality such factors act as triggers. Multiple factors, operating en masse through the function and structure of a family to precipitate or perpetrate violence. How these come together in any given family will vary. Current investigations do not focus on unitary factors, but posit that such violence originates in the structure of the family, and/or society, or the dynamic interaction between the two.

The fact of the matter is that there is not single cause of family violence, not mental illness, not stress, not violence in childhood, and not the abuse of alcohol or drugs. In reality, characteristics of the abuser (e.g., psychological, emotional states), the dynamics of the family, the social situation, and community factors (e.g., cultural attitudes regarding violence), all influenced by the family situation and structure, appertain to who is abused and under what condition.

Researchers in the field have acknowledged that by its very nature, family violence is multidimensional and multi-determined. Although a separate field of study under the rubric of family violence has emerged,research to date has focused mainly on one or another of its many forms. As a result, data exists on domestic (or marital) violence, and the physical and sexual abuse of children, among others, with the most recent additions being husband battering, elder abuse, and adolescent violence toward parents. Also of concern to educators, among others, is the impact on students from exposure to suchviolence.

For any child who witnesses domestic violence, for example, a mother's abuse, each act observed can harm and confuse, provoking feelings such as anger, fear, powerlessness, loneliness, guilt and distrust. Children bring this trauma to school, where some will display disturbing and/or confusing behaviour(s), while other children exposed to such violence will not present any obvious behavioural signs. Although research indicates that such children commonly display certain behaviours, other than disclosure, no single behaviour confirms exposure to domestic violence.

While some students will fade into the background, others will outperform their peers. Still others may act aggressively, bullying, and intimidating others to get their way. Identifying with the abuser, such students have learned to view relationships as having a winner and a loser, and may go to extremes to ensure that they win. Conversely, other children, identifying with the victim, have learned that remaining quiet keeps them safe, such students may act fearful, and/or passive with peers, and be the victim of others' bullying.

All educators have a role in helping children of family violence. According to the literature in this area,whether or not teachers observe signs of violence, they can become cognizant of its existence by answering questions such as:

♦ Is this student anxious and concerned about returning to his/her home? Does he/she express the wish that you (or someone else) were a parent? (Such children often try to get away, that is, escape the violence in their family.)

♦ Does this student worry exceedingly about his/her family: mother, father, and/or siblings? Does the/she feel responsible and/or accountablefor adult matters? Has he/she tried to persuadeyou that it is imperative that he/she go back home? (The child may be preoccupied with keeping his family safe.)

♦ During class periods that are relatively low stress and low ability, does this child fall asleep? Does he/she frequently appear drowsy, sleepy or tired? (Because fighting frequentlyhappens at night, fighting may wake him/her. then again he/she may be frightened to go to sleep fearing the onset of such conflicts.)

♦ Is this student quiet, withdrawn? Is it an effort for him/sher to make new friends? Does he/she appear depressed? (For some children the way they cope with abuse is to withdraw emotionally and physically.Such children may also be unable to trust others and/or to establish prosocial bonds.)

♦ Does this child have a low threshold for frustration? Does he/she cry or throw a tantrum over minor difficulties.(Such children can experience difficulty coping with even low levels of frustration and challenge. Educators need to be cognizant that low tolerence does not imply low ability:The capabilities of these children may be impaired by the trauma: they have experienced. It needs to be restored!)

♦Does this student appear preoccupied? Does he/she startle easily?

♦ Does the student's mood change quickly, with no cause? Is he/she calm on times, and inconsolable at other times? Is he/she often agitated, anxious, and/or have usual reactions to routine events? (Such children can present signs of trauma during school activities, even at play. Their reactions can be an intensity that is specific to the original act of violence).

All children exposed to violence need to feel that they are loved and safe. Because teachers have the most contact, they may be the first to notice signs of trouble in a child. Here the teacher's role is not to investigate allegations and/or advocate the child's removal from the family. Nor is it to jeopardize the child's and/or parent's safety by sending home unsolicited information about domestic violence.

In part, it is to promote healing by providing support and establishing a haven where such children feel safe. (Where all children feel safe.) Space does not permit a review of legal requirements, responding to disclosure(s), and/or resources available for helping children.All teachers should address violence as a social issue in the curriculum, teach nonviolent methods of resolving conflicts, and reward pro-social behaviours.

Authors: FT Wells; L. Gilbert, MEd.

(References available upon request)