George Frideric Handel was born in Halle, Germany in 1685 and died in London, 1759. He was a traveled composer, conductor, violinist, and organist. He spent fours years in Italy (1706-1709) studying with Corelli, the Scarlattis, “and other leading figures, and rapidly attaining mastery of Italian style opera, chamber music, and vocal music. He was acclaimed a genius, the rival of his Italian contemporaries.”

Ferdinando de' Medici encouraged Handel to travel to Florence to familiarize himself with the Italian style. There he composed operas and church music (including the oratorio La resurrezoine) and had his music performed in Florence, Naples, Rome and Venice, all the while perfecting his ability to set Italian words to music. His opera Agrippina opened the 1709 carnival and was a huge success.

Handel left Italy for a job as court composer and conductor in Hannover, Germany, where he arrived in the spring of 1710. As had been the case in Halle, he did not hold this job for long. By the end of 1710 Handel had left for London, where his opera Rinaldo (1711) scored an operatic triumph. After returning to Hannover he was granted permission for a second short trip to London, from which he never returned.

For the next 35 years Handel was immersed in the ups and downs of operatic activity in London where the Italian opera seria was the dominant force. In 1712 he received a pension of £ 200 a year for life from Queen Anne, this being increased to £ 600 by King George I, his former ruler in Hanover, for whom in 1712 he composed the famous Water Music suite.

Handel was forced to face his truancy when in 1714 the elector at Hannover, his former employer, became King George I of England. The reconciliation of these two men may well have occurred, as has often been said, during a royal party on the River Thames in 1715, during which the F major suite from Handel's Water Music was probably played. “The legend that Handel wrote it for a royal party in 1715 to restore himself to favor with King George I is attractive but unsubstantiated.”

Upon the arrivel of George I in London, Handel feared his former employers disdain. This was not the case. However, due to other political situations, the Prince of Wales falling out of favor with the king, Handel soon was under the patronage of the duke of Chandos. During this employ he composed his oratorio Esther and the 11 Chandos anthems for choir and string orchestra (1717-20). However, by 1719 Handel had won the support of the king to start the Royal Academy of Music for performances of opera, which presented some of Handel's greatest operas: Radamisto (1720), Giulio Cesare (1724), Tamerlano (1724), and Rodelinda (1725).

Italian opera was all the rage in London, so Julius Caesar was a huge success, and Handel's first big operatic hit. It ran for thirteen performances and was remounted three times in the next eight years. It was also performed in concert in Paris in the summer of 1724, and was the most successful of Handel's operas in Germany, with numerous productions in Hamburg and Brunswick between 1725 and 1737.

In 1719 Handel was appointed the musical director of the newly-founded Royal Academy of Music, for which he wrote a dazzling series of operas: Radamisto, Giulio Cesare, Tamerlano, and Rodelinda, ending when the Academy closed in 1728 due to lack of funds. In 1723 Handel took British naturalization. Beginning in 1729 he launched a series of opera seasons at the King's Theatre. Works included Acis, Orlando, Ariodante and Alcina. In 1741 the Messiah was premiered in Dublin and Handel stopped composing operas. From then, his work was taken up with oratorios, (including Samson, Belshazar and Judas Maccabaeus), orchestral works (including the Concerto grosso, op. 6, 1740) and revivals of his many operas. When Handel died in 1759, he was buried in Westminster Abbey.

Handel’s, Julius Caesar in Egypt, is an opera in three acts. The plot of the Opera is based on Caesar’s fight to regain Cleopatra’s throne and her love. The setting is Egypt in 48 B.C. “The libretto by Bussani first set by Sartorio for his opera of the same name (1676) was adapted for Handel by librettist Nicola. The historical details of Julius Caesar's visit to Egypt in 48-47 B.C. are taken from Plutarch's Lives.”

The author of the fine libretto of Giulio Cesar was Haym, the composer, cellist, and biographer who supplied eight or more librettos for Handel. Haym took some liberties with the facts of Caesar’s sojourn in Egypt to permit each character to contribute significantly to the denouement. Ptolemy’s rule over Egypt is threatened by his sister Cleopatra’s plot to unseat him. She strives to win Caesar to her side through womanly wiles. King Ptolemy too hopes to gain Caesar’s favor by presenting him with the head of Pompey, whom Caesar has pursued to Egypt. Pompey’s wife, Cornelia (in reality he was married to Julia, Caesar’s daughter) and her son Sesto seek revenge for Pompey’s murder. Caesar, shocked by Ptolemy’s brutal deed, joins Cleopatra in the second act to fight the forces of Ptolemy. In Act II Ptolemy’s forces are victorious over Cleopatra’s and she is made prisoner. Caesar escapes by swimming out to sea. On returning he finds Achilla, who has turned against Ptolemy because the King did not reward him with beautiful Cornelia as promised. Together with Sesto they gain entry into the palace and liberate Cleopatra. Sesto stabs Ptolemy (in history he accidentally drowned in the Nile) and Caesar crowns Cleopatra.

Major Roles in Julius Caesar

Julius Cesar, Roman Emperor (mezzo, contralto, or bass baritone)
Cornelia, Wife of Pompeo (contralto)
Sesto Pompeo, Son of Pompeo (mezzo or tenor)
Cleopatra, Queen of Egypt (soprano)
Curio, Roman Tribune (bass)
Achilla, In service to Tolomeo (bass)
Nireno, Eunuch to Cleopatra (alto or bass)
Tolomeo, Half-brother to Cleopatra (alto, countertenor or bass)

Act I

Scenes 1-4 (Egyptian countryside) Having defeated Pompeo's army at Pharsalia, Caesar chases Pompeo to Egypt. Pompeo's son, Sesto, and his wife, Cornelia, asks for peace which Caesar grants. Caesar is horrified when Achilla, commander of the Egytian army, presents him Pompeo's severed head. Cornelia wants to kill herself but Curio prevents her, admitting he loves her. Sesto swears revenge against the Egyptian King Tolomeo who betrayed his father.

Scenes 5-6 (A room in Cleopatra's palace) Cleopatra plans to rule in place of her half-brother Tolomeo. Achilla agrees to arrange Caesar's death for Tolomeo in return for Cornelia's hand.

Scenes 7-8 (Caesar's camp) Cleopatra presents herself to Caesar under a different identity, as 'Lydia. She wins his heart. She also agrees to help Sesto assassinate Tolomeo.

Scenes 9-11 (In the palace of the Ptolemies) Caesar greets Tolomeo. Tolomeo has Sesto arrested and Cornelia put in the harem.

Act II

Scenes 1-2 (A grove of cedars before Mount Parnassus) Cleopatra tells Nireno to bring Caesar to her. Caesar hurries off to Cleopatra.

Scenes 3-6 (The harem) Cornelia flees Achilla's proposals and also rejects Tolomeo. Nireno frees Sesto. He leads him to the harem where Sesto can ambush Tolomeo.

Scenes 7-8 (The palace garden) In the palace garden, Caesar sees Cleopatra sleeping, Curio warns him of the plot against his life. Cleopatra wakes up and reveals her true identity.

Scenes 9-11 (A room in the harem) In the harem, Sesto attacks Tolomeo but is disarmed by Achilla who announces Caesar's death and Cleopatra's revolt. He demands Cornelia's hand but Tolomeo rebukes him.

Act III

Scenes 1-5 (Harbor near Alexandria) Tolomeo's army is victorious and Cleopatra is captured. Cleopatra laments. Caesar lives. Achilla, mortally wounded, gives him his seal to help him get into the palace to kill Tolomeo. Before dying, he confesses that the assassination of Pompeo was his idea.

Scene 6 (Cleopatra's apartments) Caesar rescues Cleopatra.

Scenes 7-8 (A royal hall) Cornelia draws a dagger on Tolomeo. However, Sesto, slays him first.

Scene 9 (The harbor) Cleopatra becomes queen. Caesar and Cleopatra rejoice in their love.

Handel was in a difficult situation in that his employer in Hannover became George I of England, where Handel now lived and worked.  It was thought that the King would not be supporting opera at the Haymarket.  This rumor was soon dismissed as he attended an opera within the first week of his coronation. 

During the following months the Prince and Prince of Wales were also regular opera attendees.  There was a falling out between the king and the Prince of Wales, which did not allow the two courts to mingle at the opera house.  Because of the conflict, the doors of the Haymarket closed in June 1717.  Handel had to seek alternate employment in the service of the Duke of Chandos (1717-1720). 

Due to the lack of support from the royals, The Royal Academy was started in 1719 with mostly private support and a token of support form the monarchy.  Thus The Academy relied solely on the patronage of the royals.  Additionally, rather than having a theatre manager, The Academy had a governor and board of directors, who were also major patrons and benefactors.

The governor of the company was the Lord Chamberlain, and the members of the corporation named in the charter included seven dukes, 13 earls and three viscounts-but also 18 plain ‘esquires’.  Members holding shares to the value of £200 were entitled to one vote in the bisiness affairs of the company, and an annual subsidy of £1000 was promised by the king.

More so than funding, the King gave his support through his attendance at Haymarket/Royal Academy presentations. “The level of support from the king was perhaps diplomatic rather than enthusiastic.  The royal grant of £1000 per year was respectable, but not sufficient to guarantee financial security in itself.”

In conclusion, above all the political and financial twists, Handel endured.  Through his compositions and political aligning, he was able to keep himself afloat throughout his time in London.  From monarchs to aristocratic London, Handel made a place for himself on the musical scene that elevated him to heights no other composer knew.  Julius Caesar triumphed in London, as did all of his operas during his time with The Royal Academy.  If it were not for the prodding of Ferdinando de' Medici, Handel may not have left Germany and his music would have been destined to obscurity following his death.  Also, it would not have been until a Handel revival that these great works would have been heard again.

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Handel, G. F.  Julius Caesar.  New York City Opera and Orchestra, Julius Rudel, conductor.  RCA CD 6182-2-RG, 1967.

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