In the Ancient Mediterranean World the Romans and the Greeks approached architectural decoration and sculpture according to the messages each civilization desired to relay. The messages varied and artists produced scenes that depicted historical narratives, Emperor’s virtues, Greek themes and many more. As time developed sculptural accomplishments allowed for sculptors and design coordinators to apply Archaic, Classical, and Hellenistic forms of representation to various different scenes; making the approach to design much more academic by allowing the application of certain styles to a particular representation as opposed to earlier in history when the style of the time was simply applied to structures of the time. While Roman sculpture is clearly heavily influenced and directly developed out of Greek traditions, it is important to note that Romans certainly developed a visual language of their own. In order to comprehend the relationship that exists between Greek and Roman architectural sculpture a careful analysis of similarities and differences between different structures, locations of buildings, patrons, and themes employed by both worlds of visual culture.

           There were a vast number of building types on which sculptural decoration was applied by the Romans and Greeks. It is easy to understand why both civilizations share specific building types because like cities and civilizations of today we require certain structures to carry out the multitude of everyday activities. For example, both ancient Roman and Greek civilizations erected temples to worship deities and carry out certain orders of business just as we have the church in which we pray and celebrate our religious affiliations today. Other structures shared by the Greeks and Romans include altars and funerary monuments such as the Ara Pacis (Roman) and the Altar of Pergamon (Greek). On the other hand, there were several building types that were specifically Greek or Roman. In Greece, specifically Delphi, there was a proliferation of treasuries. These buildings were erected by various states to commemorate victories both overseas as well as on the mainland. Examples include the Siphnian Treasury as well as the Athenian Treasury. While both were decorated with sculptural programs the Siphnian was in the Ionic order (which included a continuous frieze along the top of the building of the Judgement of Paris) and the Athenian was in the Doric Order (which included a series of metopes articulating feats of Herakles and other Greek stories).

          Roman builders created several different ways to celebrate accomplishments. With funding by the Senate and aristocracy of Rome the development of triumphal arches and columns celebrated Roman military victories. For example, one of the most famous triumphal arches is Constantine’s arch near the Coliseum. This consists of an amalgamation of styles and sculptural programs of Trajan, Hadrian, and Constantine himself. One other very important Roman building type is the basilica; the basilica was often found in an organized public space called the forum. One, of many great examples, is the Basilica Aemeila in the Roman Forum. On it depicts (in a continuous frieze) the stories of the Rape of the Sabine women as well as the Punishment of Tarpeia (both of which refer to the development and beginning stages of Rome as a Populus).
The forum is a good example of how Roman architecture manipulated the interaction and business of the people of Rome. This is not to say, however, that the Greeks lacked a space similar to the forum. The Greeks utilized a space known as the Acropolis. Although an Acropolis was a fortified city usually elevated and designed for security from enemies, the idea of a controlled public space is similar to the Roman forum. It is very important and central to the topic of this paper that one keeps in mind that all of these different structures were decorated with applied ornament in various places and contained a myriad of different meanings.

           The idea of place and the location of building projects is extremely important to the overall message and type of sculpture utilized. Take for example the Sebasteion in Western Turkey. The Romans made it very clear that they were partners with Greeks in an Imperial enterprise and through the construction and decoration of the Sebasteion. The decoration of the Sebasteion reflects the virtues of Augustus and it consists of a gate, two porticoes, and a temple to the Imperial cult of Augustus.
          Decoration adorns the registers of the two-storied porticoes as well as the temple. The North portico consists mainly of allegorical figures like day (Temera) and Ocean (Okeanos). The South portico consist of canonical Greek myths which helps to emphasize the cultural atmosphere of its location. For example, the flight of Aeneas from Troy carrying Anchises with his wife Creusa is particularly important because Aeneas is linked to the founding of Rome and the Julio Claudian family; when Aeneas left Troy and found Livinium, his son Eulos became head of the Julian family. Also, on the South portico is the Julio-Claudian family represented fully nude; the Imperial family represented nude established a direct affinity of the family with the Gods because divine figures are historically depicted as nude figures. This decision to represent the family as divine nude beings is not an entirely original one because in Hellenistic traditions, kings portrayed themselves in the same revealing guise. We know that it is the Imperial family because the figures, most importantly Augustus, are recognizable because of their portrait-like depiction. He is standing next to a trophy with Nike standing beside him laying her hand on the trophy.The representation of Nike is very similar in style to the representation of Nike on the Temple to Athena Nike (420 BC) on the Athenian Acropolis.
The emphasis on family values continues to be present in the decoration as two Julio-Claudian princes (perhaps Gaius and Lucius) are depicted; this directly reflects the principles of brotherhood and concordia emphasized by Augustus at the beginning. Also, it is important to note that Claudius and his wife Agrippina are represented too (further emphasizing marital harmony). Nero is represented being crowned by his mother, Agrippina the younger, which solidifies the smooth transition within the family legacy among the Emperors and leaders of Rome. This brings me to two major points about the identity of the Roman empire that are articulated on the Sebasteion; these ideas create a Roman identity that reflect an empire created from an all-encompassing harmony as well as partners of Greeks through a shared history. The latter is created through the conflation of Roman leaders and heroes with Greek stories - making the Romans and Greeks partners in an Imperial enterprise.
The identity of the patron has a strong impact on the themes expressed in Roman culture. For example, at Tiberius’ villa in Sperlonga, Italy, there are baroque-influenced sculptures of Greek affiliated stories from the Odyssey (that were suggested to have occurred close to Italy). Tiberius had a special admiration for things Greek and thus utilized a sculptural style appropriated by the Greeks to depict Homer’s stories. For example, the Blinding of Polymorphous is extremely exaggerated and looks just as dramatic as the Greek Gigantomachy found on the Great Altar at Pergamon. Also at Tiberius’ Villa is a statue of Athena, although it is a more archaic representation of her. Thus Tiberius has chosen to use a style associated with the age to represent Athena’s cult statue. It is quite obvious that personal opinions were considered compared to the classical state commissioned reliefs found on such monuments as the Ara Pacis. The choice of using Homer’s mythical stories for private consumption (as done by Tiberius) versus the employment of Imperial Family lineages on the Ara Pacis (as done by the state of Rome) helps illuminate why different themes are used in sculpture and that the commissioner plays an extremely large role in dictating those decisions. Also, it’s important to consider for whom these monuments are being consumed by because this affected the decision of the commissioner as well.
The identity of the commissioner in Greece’s sculptural programs is important insofar as it reflects the political nature of the city in which the program is being implemented. For example the city of Corcyra has a Temple of Artemis (580 BC) and on its pediment Corinth has exerted its authority through the depiction of Pegasus because Pegasus is related to the founder of Corinth. Since Corcyra was founded by Corinth, Corinth is reminding the people of Corcyra who is in charge. Most of the themes in Greek Sculptural Programs, like the temple of Artemis at Corcyra, consist of mythological themes or political ties to the city in which the sculpture is established.
              The ideology behind sculptural programs installed by the ancient Greeks and ancient Romans vary according to the desired identity each group of people wished to established. Since the beginning of the development of Roman architecture and sculpture, the production of work that emphasizes concordia from an idealistic perspective proliferates in archeological evidence - this can be found on the Ara Pacis. The Greeks cannot be ascribed to the principles of unity and concordia upon which the Roman Empire was established. The Greeks established their identity through their historical narratives and mythological episodes by emphasizing their connection with the Gods. Greek architectural sculpture celebrates its own culture and heritage through representations of battles and other major societal defining events such as the treasuries installed on the Athenian Acropolis as a result of victory over their non-Greek enemies.. As if the sculpture wasn’t a big enough departure from the ancient Greeks, the Romans developed new structures on which they could apply their sculpture such as arches, basilicas, and columns. However, the connection Roman designs share with Greeks are still very evident.
                  The Greeks experimented with sculptural style over time and began to apply decoration academically just before Roman sculpture really started to take off. The Romans adopted many styles and techniques from the Greeks and could apply an academic approach to their sculptural programs earlier in their history than the Greeks bu the development of their own visual language occurred later for Roman artisans. However, both made independent academic decisions regarding what themes were to be articulated and in which sculptural style. For example, the Ara Pacis built for Augustus, reflects the golden age established by Augustus. It is important to note that the sculptural program is highly classicizing which recalls the golden age of Greece. Greek classical sculpture reflects the fruition of Greek posterity in monuments such as Assembly of Gods on the Parthenon Frieze (447-438 BC) and sculpture in the pediment of the Parthenon. Both instances represent the celebration of unity by order of procession and personal connection as depicted in the pan-Hellenic festival on the Parthenon frieze and the representation of the entire Roman Imperial family on the Ara Pacis.
                 While the appropriation of Greek Classical architecture by the Romans was significant and not the only sculptural style borrowed by the Romans, it is important to delineate the fact that Roman sculptural programs developed individually as well. During the time of Trajan, Roman architectural sculpture saw a drastic change in style. Art of the freedman, the lower class masons, was used in public state reliefs in Rome. A couple of revered examples include the Column of Trajan (113) in Rome and the Column of Augustus. Both represent military campaigns in the freedman relief; the freedman style is characterized by conflated frontal and aerial perspectives and congested compositions. Hierarchy is displayed in the sculpture vis-a-vie the size of figures and the location given to them by the masons. In a relief where Trajan is giving an adlocutio (addressing his soldiers), he is both elevated and slightly larger in scale compared to the soldiers arranged in a semicircle around him.
               The scenes of battle on Trajan’s column also do something different; the soldiers are depicted as a respectful and formidable enemy. They are given panels that demonstrate the same gatherings, speeches, and non-events depicted of the Roman legions which elevates their status to a relatively more equal level. This is very different to the way Greeks chose to represent their enemies. If one were to compare the Roman columns to Greek monuments such as the Temple of Zeus at Olympia (460 BC) and the Great Altar of Pergamon (175-150 BC), one would easily recognize the different ways enemies are represented. On the west pediment of the Temple of Zeus there is a Centauromachy depicted. In the center Apollo stands there fighting a centaur and a lapith. The composition is very dynamic but more importantly the centaurs and lapiths are depicted as barbaric monstrosities. They can be seen biting the limbs of one another and not an ounce of respect can be found in this sculptural program for the enemies. Also, on the Great Altar of Pergamon, which was crafted in the Baroque style, the dynamic fighting in the Gigantomachy provides a similarly degrading representation of the enemy. The enemy of the Gods (the Giants) are just as bestially represented in form as the Centaurs because of their serpent-like legs. While they seem less aggressive than the centaurs and lapiths on the Temple of Zeus, they still seem very tragic and pathetic with their deeply carved faces that give them a dramatic, mask-like appearance.
              References to Greek sculpture occur in most of the monuments that were built by the Roman Empire. Since the foundation of Roman sculpture relies on the borrowing from Greek practices it is logical that Roman sculptural programs would either refer to or appear inspired by Greek sculptural tradition. Roman artisans employed various Greek styles as I have already mentioned (Classicizing sculpture on the Ara Pacis Augustae and even a more dynamic sculptural program of the Sebasteion in Aphrodisias). This was done deliberately by the Romans in order to not only insert themselves into the historical fabric of ancient Greece, but also to establish a relationship both affiliated with Greek culture and yet still remain independent.
                 The architectural sculpture of both the Romans and the Greeks seems to digest similar themes but more often than not very different building types. For example, Septimius Severus’ Tetrapylon in Leptis Magnus (203-204) is very unique in that it consists of four intersecting triumphal arches connected through which one could pass. Like most other monuments of Septimius Severus, it was strategically placed in the city - in the case of his tetrapylon it was located at the intersection of the decumanus and the cardo (the two major roads of any roman city). It was also unique because it consisted of broken pediments and the attic of the tetrapylon carried relief panels instead of an inscription. The sculptural program found on the tetrapylon explores themes very similar to other Roman monuments such as a sacrificial scene, triumphal celebration, and concordia amongst his family - thus these themes become priorities in order to affiliate himself with past emperors and create an identity tied with great emperors before him. In this instance, however, the sculptural style is quite different; figures and other carved forms have a strong emphasis on lines an patterns instead of volume - a hallmark of Severan art. Also, the emperor is beginning to be represented frontal rather than in profile and freedman perspectives appear to be less influential in compositions.
               The Arch of Galerius in Thessaloncia is quite different from many monuments in Rome and on the mainland. While it commemorates Galerius most importantly it also depicts the reigning tetrarchs; this depiction of the tetrarchs is frontal just like in Septimius Severus’ tetrapylon. Also, it is important to note that it is brick with the piers covered in marble which is very different than most Roman monuments. Again similar themes are explored and the overall program is juxtaposing specific military events with generic tetratic court ceremonies. This is very similar to themes explored on monuments such as the Column of Trajan in Rome where the virtues of the emperor are explored through sculptural depictions of adlocutio, liberalitas, etc... as well as the depiction of non-events such as the cutting of roads and chopping of trees.
                    For Greece, the monument off the mainland found in Pergamon and Xanthos explore themes similar to the mainland but often on different types of structures. The Nereid Monument (390-380) in Xanthos is a Lycian funerary monument. Its podium is decorated with friezes and this style originated in Persia. There are two different podium friezes and Jenkins even suggests that two sculptors completed the two different friezes. There are depictions of City sieges; soldiers are approaching the city and scaling the ladders to enter the city. There is a Dynast holding an audience which is very similar to Roman monuments such as Trajan’s adlocutios on the Column of Trajan, but this is new for Greek sculpture.
              Another Greek monument off the mainland is the great Altar of Pergamon (175-150 BC). The themes explored here are again very similar to those explored on mainland Greece. There is a Gigantomachy carved in very high relief. The style is very Hellenistic and theatrical because of the mask-like faces of the figures, their exaggerated muscles and their deeply carved mouths. This theme can be seen on the Siphnian treasury at Delphi. One very interesting thing explored on the Altar of Pergamon can be found in the interior frieze of the altar. This depicts, with a classical style, the story of Telephos, the son of Herakles. It is suggested that the Telephos legend is propaganda used on this monument and in Pergamon in order to insert the Attalids into the fabric of Greek history. If this is true, this is very similar to the Sebasteion on Aphrodisias where the Romans try to invoke Greek themes and stories to insert themselves into Greek history. Thus it would appear that one of the major priorities of both the Romans and Greeks was to establish a direct connection with specific cultures - in this case the Romans with the Greeks as found on the Sebasteion and the Attalids with the Greeks as found on the Altar of Pergamon.
               The most dominating theme in architectural sculpture is the historical narrative. While Greek and Roman structures depict historical narratives, the Romans were more concerned with documenting and commemorating modern day events and accomplishments and the Greeks were more concerned with mythology and events in the past. The Roman’s decision to incorporate historical narratives into their sculpture ties them into the historical fabric with the Greeks; this connection illuminates the influence of Greek art on Roman design as well historical connections that exist between the two peoples. Historical narratives are found on all types of structures from memorial monuments such as temples to celebratory structures such as columns. The Greeks articulated many similar episodes in their historical narratives such as Gigantomachies, Centuaromachies, and Amazonomachies. On the temple of Zeus at Olympia (c.460BC) there is the depiction of a Centauromachy which is very similar to the one found on the Parthenon (447-438BC) on the Athenian Acropolis. The fight between the lapiths and the Centuars are both represented in a very dynamically carved composition. The nature of some Roman historical narratives delved into Greek tradition too. For example, the Monument of Aemilius Paulus (c.168BC) in Delphi. The scene depicted is of Aemilius dying in the battle of Pydna versus the Macedonian King, Perseus. Like typical historical narratives, a battle is depicted, however the Romans did something interesting with the design of this monument. Perseus’ bases were used for the sculpture and this appropriation of a Greek base for a Roman monument on Greek land delivers a strong political message. Not only is Greek marble used for the sculpture, but also the style of the sculpture is classical. Roman forces are trying to insert themselves into the historical fabric of Greek history and culture while making a claim to their authority over Greece by building the monument in Delphi. Greek buildings and narratives also exerted authority through decoration like on the Temple of Artemis (c.580BC) at Corcyra. As I have already mentioned, Corinth is exerting itself as the founder and machine in charge through the incorporation of Pegasus on the pedimental sculpture. Pegasus was associate with Corinth and serves as a reminder to the people of Corcyra that the city owes its existence to Corinth.
                   The theme of concordia, specific to Roman sculpture, exists in many layers and resonates throughout Roman architectural sculpture; it can be seen on many different structures built by the Roman empire, each strengthening the harmonious fabric of the empire. To begin with, the Ara Pacis of Rome (13-9BC) emphasizes this principle on which Augustus wanted to establish his empire. It is not insignificant to note that the Ara Pacis, which was given to Augustus by the Senate after his successful return from Gaul, directly translates into the Altar of Augustan Peace, because before discussing the decorative detail we know what the message is going to be. Familial concordia is articulated by the inclusion of the entire Imperial Family on the registers of the altar - the figures are differentiated, including Augustus, by utilizing portraiture and the representation of age in the figures. By representing the entire imperial succession Augustus makes his dynastic hopes and ambitions very clear; including grandchildren reassures the citizens of Rome that his great legacy will survive. Also, the presence of Senators, Flamines, and Lictors illuminate the cohesive nature of the Senate and People of Rome. Aside from political reassurance, the inclusion of children encourages fertility and marriage throughout the population of Rome. The idea of concordia is extended even further to the state of the empire through the decoration on the interior of the altar; represented are an abundance of heavy garlands with fruits from all seasons. This represents the divine peace of every season - more importantly the timelessness and harmony of the age of Augustus only achieved through both his leadership and that of his future Julio-Claudian successors.
                 To continue with this message of concordia one must examine other monuments throughout both space (the expanse of the Roman empire) as well as time. The Sebasteion in Aphrodisias was named after Aphrodite which translates to the Roman goddess Venus and thus begins the Roman’s direct connection with Greece. Venus was the mother of the Roman people through her son Aeneas. It is here that the temple to the Imperial cult of Augustus was erected; the structures were begun under Tiberius and an earthquake during Claudius’ rule caused major damage to the structure; the structure, however, was completed upon Nero’s ascension. Already, just in the historical record of building one can see how the Emperors attempted to position themselves in line with Augustus. Tiberius’ decision to celebrate Augustus through the building of the Sebasteion signals an attempt to both relate himself to the adored princeps and prescribe Augustus’ virtues to the entire Julio-Claudian leaders. To further this idea of political concordia, Nero makes the reconstruction of the temple a priority while in power.
                    Two last monuments I will mention (but certainly not the last monuments that reflect the principle of Concordia) is the Column of Trajan (113) in Rome and the Arch of Trajan (114-118) in Beneventum. While the Column of Trajan further supports Augustus’ ideas of concordia in its representation of the two Dacian wars it also celebrates domestic and foreign policy like the Sebasteion did. Concordia amongst soldiers is depicted through the comradery and support among soldiers in Trajan’s military. There are scenes of wounded Roman soldiers being helped by companions; one is depicted bandaging the legs of another soldier. This imagery not only reflects the support between soldiers but the fact that there were costs as well as benefits of war. It is very clear that the Roman empire is truly a machine stabilized by unity and support. Appealing to the foreign policy, Trajan’s monument is the representation of battles and success over Dacia. The Dacians are depicted as formidable enemies which only glorifies Trajan’s victory over them. As one can easily recognize, the idea of concordia that is embedded within Roman art is very different to themes explored in the Greeks.
             It is very interesting to think that the Romans aspired to be a part of Greek history and tradition and did whatever they could to insert themselves into their time line. However, the Romans also exerted authority over the Greeks by establishing monuments on Greek soil and therefore became more than a brotherhood affinity. It is also similar with the Attalids and how they desired to amalgamate their culture with the Greeks through the sculptural decoration on the Great Altar at Pergamon. Thus it would seem that Greek culture was not only set the foundations for architectural sculpture (through styles, themes, and architectural orders) around the Mediterranean but also created an identity of which many other cultures aspired to be.