What is a virtual particle? How can virtual particles appear out of empty space and disappear into empty space? For that matter what are particles of matter? If a particle of matter and a particle of anti matter collide nothing is left but an electromagnetic energy. Where did the particles go? What physically causes the electric charge and how is it transported through empty space? Why do particles with like charges repel each other while particles with unlike charges attract each other? What could have caused the big bang? How could all of the matter and energy in the universe have been compressed into a single point in empty space? What would cause this point to suddenly explode creating all the matter and energy that we see in the universe today? It would certainly appear that empty space is more than nothing. But what is it?

What if the universe is composed of a single medium capable of supporting vibrations? And if all that we perceive as matter and energy is only vibrations (electromagnetic waves) within this medium? This is all there is and nothing else. It doesn't matter if you call this medium the ether or the final frontier.

Years ago the ether was proposed as a medium to support the movement of electromagnetic waves through empty space. After all you can not have water waves if you have no water to support the waves. You can not have sound waves without air or some other medium to support the wave.

One major objection to the idea of the ether is that it would cause resistance to the movement of matter through the medium. That objection disappears if matter itself is only a vibration in the medium. It might be this medium is solid. It certainly must have a high rigidity to transport light waves at such a high velocity. With out the medium there is no light, there is no matter.

With this in mind, we can use imagination, to suggest possible explanations for some observed physical phenomenon. One of these is the duality of both light and matter. That is light usually behaves as waves, but sometimes behaves as particles. Is there a way that light waves can produce the effect of photons? Matter usually behaves as if it was made of particles but sometimes behaves as though it were made of waves. Is there some way that electromagnetic waves can combine to behave as particles, with all the attributes of particles? How could the combinations of various electromagnetic waves or impulses ever behave as a particle? A particle has mass, it is localized in space. Two or more particles cannot occupy the same space at the same time. A particle can have any relative velocity from 0 to almost c (the speed of light). An electromagnetic wave has no mass. It is not localized; it spreads out over a large volume of space. Many waves can occupy the same space at the same time. These waves have only one relative velocity c. They have attributes of wavelength, frequency, intensity and amplitude of the disturbance.

The photoelectric effect is the emission of electrons from a body (usually metal) when exposed to electromagnetic waves. The higher the frequency of the wave, the more energy the ejected electrons have. A bright light yields more photoelectrons than a dim one of the same frequency, but the electron energies remain the same. That is the greater the frequency of the wave the greater the speed of the ejected electrons. At frequencies below a certain critical frequency f_O, no electrons are emitted. The critical frequency f_O, is characteristic of each particular metal.

There is no detectible time interval between the arrival of light at a metal surface and the emission of photoelectrons. Since the energy in an EM wave is supposed to be spread across the wave front, a period of time should elapse before an individual electron accumulates enough energy (several eV) to leave the metal.

To explain this, in 1905 Einstein realized that the energy in light is not spread out over the wave front but is concentrated in small packets, or photons. Einstein described the photoelectric effect with the equation,

hf = KE_max + Φ.

The energy of the photon is planks constant (h) times its frequency (f) equals the maximum kinetic energy (KE_max) of the ejected electron plus the minimum energy (Φ) needed for an electron to leave the metal (the metal's work function Φ )

The total energy of the electromagnetic wave depends on the amplitude of the wave as well as its frequency. In fig. 1a we see a computer representation of an electromagnetic wave radiating from a single point on the x,y plane viewed at a 45^O angle. When the height of the wave is above a minimum value it is colored purple. We can see as the wave expands the amplitude of the wave (and its resultant energy) is reduced. But this energy is evenly distributed in all directions. Fig. 1b is the same but viewed straight on from above the plane. These drawings were created in GWBASIC with a computer program called 3DWAVE-1.

When light radiates from a light bulb or the sun, it does not radiate from a single point but from many different points within the radiating body. As the waves from these different points pass through each other they create both constrective and destructive interference in the wave's amplitude. In fig. 2a and particularly fig. 2b, we see how radiation from only nine different points, breaks the continuous waterfronts into little bundles of energy. Any source bright enough to be seen would be radiating light from a great many more then nine atoms at a time. These drawings were created in GWBASIC with a computer program called 3DWAVE-9

Photons are points where many different spherical impulses of the same wavelength intersect and are in phase at those points. In these illustrations we are seeing only the wave in the x,y plane. A complete photon would consist of a limited wave train, containing an equal number of positive and negative impulses. The positive and negative impulses are of equal strength and this prevents the photon from carrying a charge. The energy of the photon would equal the energy of all the waves it is composed of. If a photon were result of a combination of one million waves, the photon would have energy equal to one million times that of the energy of a single wave plus the energy of the waves canceled elsewhere.

Space may be considered electrical neutral. However, if anything in space were vibrating between positive and negative electric fields this varying energy will expand in all directions with the speed of light, as spherical electromagnetic waves through space. In fig. 3 we see an electromagnetic wave where the changing electric field creates a magnetic field 90 degrees to it. This changing magnetic field in turn creates the electric field that fluctuates in time. Since the magnetic fluctuations are due to the electric fluctuations we will concentrate only on the electric portion of the electromagnetic wave from now on.

If a strong charge (an impulse) should occur in space it will expand as a hollow sphere of charge. After the impulse has passed the space will oscillate between positive and negative charge. These oscillations will dampen out shortly after the impulse hs passed.  As the sphere of charge continue to expands, the amount of charge (q) it is able to impart to an area of space it is passing thought is reduced by the amount of distance the sphere surface is from the origin. The electric field of the wave E = kq/r² at the distance r from the charge q at the origin of the wave.  

At the top of fig. 4 we see a group of concentric circles representing the expanding spheres of an electromagnetic wave. The solid lines indicate positive peaks while the dotted lines indicate the negative peaks.  At the bottom of fig. 4 we see the amplitudes of the same wave.  As the wave moves out from its origin the amplitude or energy of the wave is reduced by q/r², since the wave is expanding into space.  This is indicated by the envelope of impulse reduction.  The curve of the envelope is a hyperbola and here it is not drawn to scale.

This is analogous to a drop of water falling into a pond of still water. The impulse, caused by the drop hitting the water, spreads out as an ever increasing circle. After the impulse has passed through an area of water, the surface will oscillate, and these oscillations will die out leaving still water again. The oscillations of an electromagnetic impulse damp out much faster than water waves.

Many impulses or waves can pass through the same volume of space at the same time. These disturbances in space can pass through each other, and after doing so continue on unaffected by the encounter. However, as they pass through each other, due to the principle of superposition, the total amount of charge is the algebraic sum of all the charges in that space at that time.

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At the top half of fig 5 we see two positive impulses and their accompaning oscillations approaching each other. When the two peak charges coincide, the resultant peak charge is equal to the sum of the peak charges of the individual impulses. This is constructive interference. Where a peak and a trough coincide in the lower half of fig. 5, they cancel each other and no charge occurs. This is destructive interference.

If one hundred peak charges occupied the same space the resultant charge would be the algebraic sum of the one hundred peaks. The same is true for a thousand wave peaks or a million wave peaks. Is there no limit? This line of reasoning leads us to the KEY CONCEPT of this article. THERE MUST BE A LIMIT TO THE AMOUNT OF CHARGE WITH WHICH NO MORE CHARGE CAN PASS.

Let us assumed that there is a maximum charge or critical amplitude, in which a charge that cannot be exceeded. This charge could be the elementary charge e which equals 1.6021892 x 10^-10 coul. If the addition of the charge amplitudes of waves occupying the same space equals or exceeds this maximum limit, then the impulses cannot pass this point. All of the waves will be reflected from this maximum peak point in space. This maximum peak charge becomes the origin of a new impulse, radiating in all directions away from that point. To study this, examine fig 6. The drawings 1 thru 5 illustrate how a single impulse behaves in space. While in fig 7 drawings 6 thru 10 illustrate how two maximum peak charges could trap wave energy between them, creating a wavical that behaves as a particle.

Fig. 6a (1) The arrow A, represents a maximum positive impulse, the elementary charge e, (a new wave front) the origin of a new wave. This maximum positive impulse may have been created by the combination of peak points from many different waves, however this is the start of a new wave. The vertical lines of the grid are 1/4 wavelength (λ) apart. The dotted curve represents the envelope of impulse reduction due to the spread factor. These drawing are not drawn to scale. T is the period of the oscillation

Fig. 6b (2) Arrows AL and AR represent the amplitude of the impulse (wave front) as it expands as a hollow sphere with the speed of light from the origin. The curved blue line between AR & AL represents the oscillation of space after the impulse has passed. Here we see the oscillation at the point at the origin has dropped to zero, the point of equilibrium. The blue ellipse on the +e line represents the intersection of a x,y plane with the sphereical positive wave front expanding from the point of maximum positive impulse

Fig. 6c {3) Here we see the impulse continues to expand through space. We have added the envelope of oscillation dampening. We see that the negative oscillation has reached its most neg amplitude, which is a long way from a critical neg amplitude -e.

Fig. 6d (4) The impulse continues to expand through space. Its amplitude continues being reduced due to the spread factor. We see that the oscillation at the point of origin has begun to move upward and has reached the line of equilibrium (0 charge).

Fig. 6e (5) The impulse has moved to a distance of one wavelength from it point of origin. The oscillation at the origin is at its maximum, which is much smaller than the critical pos maximum. On each successive oscillation it will be smaller and smaller. AR &AL will continue to expand through space as a positive electrical impulse.

Fig. 7a  (6) Here we have two impulses that started 1/2 wavelength apart and peak 1/2 period apart. 

- The small black arrows at the top, indicate the origins of wave A and wave B. 

- A is a critical peak, a new impulse, the origin of new wave.  While B had its critical peak 1/2 period ago. 

- The orange arrow BL is the leading left impulse from point B. It is hidden behind the blue arrow representing the new critical point.

- The orange arrow BR is the leading right impulse from point B. Its impulse has spread out and its oscillation is at its minimum at its point of origin. 

- The blue ellipses represent earlier wave fronts from point A. 

- The orange ellipses represent the present and earlier wave fronts from point B.

- The space between the two vertical dotted black lines indicates the area occupied by the wavical.

- The dotted red curve represents the approximate addition of all the waves reflected back and forth in the wavical past and present. 

- The node here is not zero but is a point of a small constant charge in the wavical.  It is the sum of all the waves at that point and it ½ way between the origins of the two waves.  

Fig. 7b  (7) Wave A is at one quarter period. 

-Arrows AL and AR represent the amplitude of the impulse (wave front) as it expands as a hollow sphere with the speed of light from the origin of wave A. 

- The curved line between AR & AL represents the oscillation of space after the impulse has passed. 

- In the area in which the expanding impulses overlap the amplitudes of the impulse and the resulting oscillations add together due to the principle of superposition. 

- The dotted red curve represents the approximate addition of all the waves reflected back and forth in the wavical.

Fig. 7c (8) Wave A is at its ½ period and the creation of a new wave B.

- The impulse AR arrives at the origin of wave B, just as the positive oscillation (O) from B peaks.

- The sum of the impulse AR and the peak of the oscillation equals the critical amplitude +e thus creating the origin of a new impulse B.

This is the key to creating and maintaining the wavical, that is the reflecting of wave fronts between two reoccurring max peak points +e.

Fig. 7d  (9) Wave A is at its ¾ period and wave B is at its ¼ period. 

- The new impulse expands from the B origin with the speed light. 

- The old BR and the new BR with other successive BRs and ALs travel out into space as continuous waves of positive charge.  Since these impulses are shown as positive, that is above the line of equilibrium.

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Fig. 7e  (10) A new wave A is created. The impulse BL arrives at the origin of A just as the positive oscillation (O) from A, peaks.  

- The sum of these two vectors, equal the critical amplitude +e thus creating the origin of a new impulse A.

- Thus, a wavical is the energy trapped between two critical peaks +e (reflection points). 

- The energy radiated away from the wavical is a continuous wave of positive electrical charge.

When we have two maximum charges that occur 1/2 wavelength apart and peak 1/2 period apart they will trap the waves between them.  When the wavelength of the electromagnetic is the right length, then these charges are self sustaining. When the wave front from wave A has traveled ½ wave length from its origin, it reaches the point where the wave B had started one period ago. At this point the oscillation from wave B is at its peak.  The addition of the charge of A’s wave front and the charge of B’s oscillation equals the maximum charge e. This maximum peak charge becomes the origin of a new electromagnetic wave B, radiating in all directions away from that point. In turn when the wave front from wave B has traveled ½ wave length it reaches the point where the wave A had started one period ago. At this point the oscillation from wave A is at its peak.  The addition of the charge of B’s wave front and the charge of A’s oscillation equals the maximum charge e. This maximum peak charge becomes the origin of a new electromagnetic wave A, radiating in all directions away from that point. Thus, a new electromagnet wave is created every ½ period and ½ wave length apart. Thus, the wavical is electromagnetic waves reflecting back and forth between critical points.  This energy is localized as a particle.

However, particles are not stationary to a fixed space, they are constantly moving in all directions. Particles also have inertia. A wavical moving with a constant velocity of 0.6c and would continue to move at that velocity forever unless some force should change the wavelengths in the wavical. When an observer sees a  wavical moving through space the wavical is affected by the Doppler effect and its time is dilated. With a velocity of 0.6c it takes 1.25 times longer for the cycle to repeat itself than when the wavical is not moving through space.

This can be seen in the computer program WAVICAL printed at the end of this article.

The definition of a wavical is the electric energy trapped between two or more reoccurring critical electric peaks (reflection points) and this energy behaves as a particle. Thus we have a localized vibration in space. Mass is the measure of this trapped energy. The wavelength of a wavical at rest is the Compton wavelength for the particle l_O = h/m_Oc. The frequency of a static wavical is f_O = c/l_O = m_Oc²/h. Its period is the reciprocal of the frequency is T_O = h/ m_Oc. When the wavical is moving relative to the observer the wavical its period is slowed by relativity to T = gh/m_Oc. The energy that radiates away from the critical peaks is a contentious wave of electrical charge. These are certainly attributes of a particle.  The critical positive charge is +e thus, the charge on a proton is +e.  The critical negative charge is -e therefore, the charge on an electron is –e, even though the wavelength of the electron is over 1,835 greater than the wavelength of the proton. 

With this arrangement the wavical is stable as long as its wavelength is in the proper range. The proton is certainly the most stable wavical, having a rest wavelength of 1.32 x 10^-15. Hence space must have a resonance frequency of 2.27x10²³ Hz for the proton and a secondary resonance frequency of 1.25x10²⁰ Hz for the electron. The frequency for the neutron is very close to that of a proton and this is why the neutron is able to exist so long alone before decays into a proton, electron and neutrino.

Since all the other elementary particles (wavicals) have different wavelengths they all have very short lifetimes,

The virtual particle

All wavicals are affected by the waves emanating from other wavicals. With so many wave fronts passing through space, occasionally enough wave fronts will pass through the same point in space at the same time to create a new critical charge. When this happens a new wave front will radiate away from this point. If there is no other reflective point there will be no continuous wave. Or if were another reflection point it is not strong enough to sustain continous reflections.  This will appear as if a new particle has appeared from nowhere and then disappeared, a virtual particle.

The charge of a wavical depends on the impulse that is being reflected back and forth within the wavical. If the impulse is positive then the waves emanating from the wavical will have a positive charge. That is the positive part of the wave is greater than the negative part of the wave. If this impulse were negative then the radiating waves will carry a negative charge. If the wavical contains two impulses, one positive and one negative, then the waves from the wavical are neutral. See figure 8

The waves that radiate from a wavical affect the space around it. If two positive wavicals were close to each other, the amplitude of the wave radiated from one wavical will increase the amplitude of the closest peak point in the other wavical and vice versa. The change in amplitude at a peak point in a wavical will cause a change in its wavelength and its velocity. Since the amplitude at peak point closest to the other wavical has increased, the velocity increase will be directed away from the other wavical. The same is true for two negative wavicals. Thus wavicals of like charge repel each other by causing an unbalanced force between them.

Figure 9 though greatly exaggerated, illustrates how positive wavicals repel each other. In part A we see a static positive wavical with positive waves of charge radiating away from the wavical in all directions. This shows how the wavical would appear if the wavical were alone. Inside the wavical a new impulse has just occurred at the right peak point. The dotted curve indicates the impulse that occurred at the left peak point one half period ago. The horizontal line above the past and present impulses, show that they were of the same amplitude.

In part B we see another wavical to the right of the one in part A. This wavical is also shown as alone. Part C is the resulting curves of the sum of part A and part B. It shows when the impulse of one positive wavical is combined with the wave radiating from another positive wavical the amplitude of the impulse is increased. This increase in amplitude of the impulse at one peak point creates a velocity vector toward the other peak point. The wavical didn't have to be stationary at first. They could have been moving toward each other. The opposing vector would slow their approach with each successive wave front until they stopped, then cause them to move apart.

We see the energy of waves between the two positive wavicals is greater than the energy of the waves outside the two wavicals. Thus the greater energy between the two wavicals shoves the wavicals apart.

Now image two wavicals of the same wavelength but different charges that are close to each other. When the radiating impulse from one wavical arrives at the first peak point of the other wavical, it reduces the amplitude of the sum of the velocities, but not below the critical velocity. This reduction in the excess velocity above the critical velocity causes a reduction in pressure on that side of the wavical causing it to move toward the other wavical. This shows why unlike charged particles attract each other.

We see the energy of waves between the positive and negative wavicals is less than the energy of the waves outside the two wavicals. Thus the imbalance of energy between the two wavicals shoves the wavicals together.

If both of these wavicals have the same wavelength, when they get close enough together so that their external impulses are large enough to reduce the amplitude of the internal impulses of wavical below the critical velocity, then that peak point ceases to exist. Hence, the wave energy cannot be reflected back. It simply dissipates into space, causing both wavicals and their accompanying masses to disappear in a release of energy. These two wavicals could have been an electron and a positron obeying the laws of antimatter.

In figure 11 we see an electron and a proton. Since the proton's frequency is over 1800 times greater than the electron, the electron cannot sense or react to the proton's individual positive and negative peaks. The electron will only sense the average of the proton's oscillating peaks as a positive field that increases the closer the electron gets to the proton. This positive field causes a reduction of the negative charge in the electron's peak point nearest the proton. But not to where it would drop below the critical charge. This reduces the pressure on that side of the electron causing it to move toward the proton. The electron waves will follow the proton's average positive envelope as the line of equilibrium. This means as the electron approaches the proton its negative peaks are reduced and its much smaller positive peak is increased. At a certain point the positive peak of the electron will have increased to the critical charge. Then it becomes a positive peak point that peaks positive at the same instant that the other peak point is peaking negative. Here the electron is neutral. It is equally as positive as it is negative. At this distance from the proton, the electron and the proton form a stable hydrogen atom. If the electron tries to move closer to the proton its positive peak becomes larger, repelling the electron from the proton. If the electron tries to move away from the proton, its negative peak increases causing it to be pulled back toward the proton.

However, a just captured electron has too much energy to form a stable hydrogen atom. The electron must radiate away some of this excess energy as electromagnetic waves. The rest of the excess energy appears as the velocity used orbiting the proton.

In fig. 12 we see the electron orbiting the proton with a velocity of about 1/137 of c, at a distance of about ½ angstrom.  At this distance the positive charge from the proton nullifies the negative charge of the electron to produce a neutrally charged electron.  If the electron moves father away from the proton the electron becomes more negatively charged and is attracted toward the proton.  If the electron moves closer to the proton the electron becomes more positively charged and is repelled away from the proton.  This change in charge is what keeps the radius of the electron orbit constant.  This is the Bohr radius of the stable orbit of the electron in the hydrogen atom.  Also the circumference of the electron orbit is equal to the DeBroglie wavelength of the electron.  In the article “What could cause the effects of relativity” we saw that the DeBroglie wave is a group wave.  This group wave is riding on a standing electromagnet wave whose wavelength equals hc(1-v²/c²)^1/2/mc².   That is planck’s constant times c times the relativity factor divided by the energy of the electron.

If the electron should receive a certain amount of energy from electromagnetic waves, the electrons velocity will change and the electron will move to a larger orbit.  At the larger orbit the electron will become negatively charged and be attracted toward the proton.  The electron can only return to its stable orbit by emitting this additional energy as electromagnetic waves or impulses. Some of this emitted energy is visible light waves.

Two protons (hydrogen nuclei) normally repel each other. However, in fig. 13, if they are forced together by high velocity, they can combine to form one wavical. This wavical will have 2 positive peaks and one negative peak (a proton-neutron pair, a deuterium nucleus). This is called the proton-proton cycle. The addition of their maximum negative charge, meets or exceeds the critical negative charge, producing a negative impulse. The two protons form a stationary wave which will produce two positive impulses and one negative impulse every ½ period. The two positive peaks are one wavelength apart. The negative peak is ½ wavelength from both positive peaks.

When the protons first meet, the positive velocity peaks far exceed the limit. This excess energy is radiated away as a positron e+ and neutrino n. These are two other wavicals of different wavelengths, created from the excess energy. These are not shown in fig. 13. The wavelength of the positron is over 1800 times the wavelength of the proton. Thus the proton would go through more than 1800 cycles to release a positron.

Two of these proton-neutron wavicals can be combined into a single wavical the alpha particle. A very stable wavical since the four positive peak points occur at the vertices of a tetrahedron, each positive peak point one wavelength apart. All the waves reinforce each other.

The nucleus of every atom may be a single wavical where the impulse from each peak point tends to reinforce the other peak points. An atomic nucleus has a critical positive peak for every proton and neutron in it and a critical negative peak for every neutron in it. As the nucleus increases in size, it is impossible for each peak point to be an integral number of wavelengths apart from all the other peak points even with the shifting of peak positions within the wavical. This will cause an interference in the wavical pattern which causes some large nuclei to be unstable. This prevents the formation of nuclei beyond a certain size. This interference is the basis for the weak force.

The reason that the nuclear force range is so short is that a positive peak point in one proton must be ½ wavelength from the negative peak point in the other proton. If for any reason the protons are moved apart, they no longer form a continuous wave and the particles repel each other. This is the reason that the nuclear force falls off so fast. The nuclear force, rather than being an energy radiated into space, is more a condition of position. One proton must have one of its positive peak points one wavelength from the other proton's positive peak points. This way they tend to support each other's position, rather than repel each other.

1. A wavical is localized in space, electromagnetic waves trapped between two critical peak points that reflect the wave back and forth. These two critical peak points are separated in length by 1/2 the wavical's wavelength and in time by 1/2 the period of one of the wavical's cycles.

2. Two or more wavicals cannot occupy the same space at the same time. Even though two or more wavicals can join together, sharing a critical peak point, they still occupy separate spaces of at least 1/2 wavelength.

3. A wavical can have any speed from 0 to almost c (the speed of light) and cannot exceed the speed of light. If a wavical were to move in any direction through 3-dimentional space with the speed of light, the signal from one critical peak could never reach the other critical peak to complete one cycle. Thus time would stand still for that wavical.

4. The energy that radiates away from the critical peaks is a continuous wave of electrical charge. This charge can be positive (positive peaks greater than negative peaks), negative (negative peaks greater than positive peaks), or neutral (positive and negative peaks equal).

This program in GW Basic, shows how the oscillation peak, at the end of the first cycle, combines with the wave front from a critical peak (½ wavelength away) to create a new critical peak.  A critical peak is the elementary charge e, in which the amplitude of waves cannot be exceeded. If the addition of the charge occupying the same space equals or exceeds this maximum limit, then the impulses cannot pass this point.  All of the waves will be reflected from this maximum peak point in space.  This maximum peak point becomes the origin of a new impulse, radiating away from that point.  When the program is run, it first asks for an input of the velocity of the wavical.  This input can be from 0 to 0.999 the speed of light.  In fig. C-1,the computer draws the waves for the time period 0.  Every time that enter is pressed it will draw the waves for the next time period, 0.1 time period away.  Each time a new critical peak is reached the program will sound a tone.  Then wave front inside the wavical will reverse direction in next time period.  The vertical line indicates the reflected wave front moving back and forth between the critical reflection points.

When the wavical is given a velocity, the circle becomes an ellipse.  The waves moving the same direction as the wavical are compressed by the Doppler Effect.  The waves moving in the opposite  direction as the wavical are stretched out by the Doppler effect.  The waves are still reflected back and forth even though the wavelengths are different.  This shows that velocity of the wavical will effect its stability.

The Pauli Exclusion Principle: No two electrons in an atom may occupy the same quantum state.  That is, no two electrons in an atom may have the same four quantum numbers.  From this it is concluded that only two electrons can occupy the same orbit around the nucleus of an atom.  What is the physical reason for this. The physical reason for this may be seen by examining the waves emanating from the two peak points of an electron in orbit around a nucleus. 

The top drawing in fig. 15 shows the calculated amplitude of the wave from the first critical point of the 1^st electron at each point on the electrons orbit.  The second drawing in fig. 15 shows the calculated amplitude of the wave from the second critical point of the 1^st electron at each point on the electrons orbit.  The third drawing in fig. 15 shows the amplitudes of the first two drawings are added together showing that the amplitudes cancel on the opposite side of the orbit from the electron.  Thus leaving a space that can be occupied by another electron.  The next 3 drawings show the wave amplitudes from another electron 180^O from the first electron. The last 3 drawings show the wave amplitudes of both electrons added together.  The two negative charges of the electrons are balanced by two positive charges in the nucleus. This is studied in the computer program eleorbit. 

 Fig 15  Wavical A is continually emitting electromagnetic waves from two peak points.  These waves travel to the opposite side of the orbit.  On arriving at this point the two waves are out phase with each other.  Thus the two waves cancel at that point.  This creates a space for a second wavical.

Fig 16 Wavical B is continually emitting electromagnetic waves from two peak points. These waves travel to the opposite side of the orbit. On arriving at this point the two waves are out phase with each other. Thus the two waves cancel at that point. This creates a space for a second wavical.

Fig 17  When the wave pattern from wavical A and the wave pattern from wave B are combined we see the orbit is totally filled with electromagnetic waves.  This prevents any other wavical from occuping this orbit. 

Gravity may be similar to the Casimir effect. The Casimir effect occurs with two parallel metal plates. Electromagnetic radiation of any wavelength can strike the parallel metal plates from the outside, but radiation trapped between the plates can only have certain wavelengths (harmonics). The resulting imbalance produces inward forces on the plates. Only a limited number of radiations are allowed to occur within a molecule, fewer inside an atom, still fewer inside a particle such as a proton, neutron or electron. Thus effect of gravity on a body may result from all the radiation the body receives from the entire universe.

When most electromagnetic impulses and wave trains bombard atoms, the atoms tend to move in the same direction as the waves are moving. This tendency is caused when a proton in the atom reaches a peak point at the same instant that a positive peak of the wave is moving through that point. Hence, waves could pass thought an atom with no effect on it until one of the peak points of the atom and a peak on the wave coincide. This can cause free atoms to jump about in different directions when effected by different waves traveling in different directions. When a larger body of matter is bombarded from all different directions by waves, the multiple little pushes all tend to be directed toward the center of the body of matter. If the wave energy is equal from all sides then the force created on one side of the body is counteracted by an equal force on the other side of the body. Hence, there is no tendency created by the waves to move the body in any direction. If two bodies of matter are close to each other in empty space, each body will shield the other body from some of the energy of the waves that would have hit it. Thus there is less bombardment on the side of each body that is closest to the other body of matter. The inequality in bombardment causes the two bodies to move toward each other. This shielding effect is symbolically illustrated in fig. 16. The closer the bodies are to each other the greater the shielding effect. The more massive the bodies are the greater the shielding effect. The denser the bodies are the greater the shielding effect. It is this shielding effect that causes what we call a gravitational field around a body of matter.

However, the planets of the solar system must receive more radiation from the sun than from outer space. Much of the radiation from the sun has a shorter wavelength than the radiation from outer space. Some of the shorter radiation from the sun can be absorbed by matter. When matter absorbs radiation it moves toward the source of the radiation. As opposed to when matter reflects radiation it moves away from the source.

Does the universe have limits to its extent? If it does what lies beyond those limits? If our universe consisted of some medium that is capable of supporting waves, then it might be bounded. It would have some shape, perhaps a sphere. Whatever its shape it might be floating in an endless sea of nothingness. There may even be other bodies similar to our universe out there that we could never know about, since no signal, no wave, no particle could travel through the void that separates them from our universe. However all the waves, hence everything that exist in our universe today might be the results of a collision between our universe and another, billions of years ago (the big bang). The two balls of ether may have stuck together or bounced apart.  Either way that collision would have created waves that are still traveling through our universe today. Since there is nothing to vibrate beyond the surface of our universe, no energy is radiated away, so that the energy in our universe would remain constant. Any wave or particle in our universe coming to the boundary between the medium of space and the void of nothingness will be reflected back into our universe. By looking for arrangements that appear as mirror images of other galaxy arrangements that are close to them, one could locate some of the limits of the universe.

If our universe is a giant ball of ether, a super solid, what is it composed of? Perhaps it is composed of particles with a diameter of planck's constant. this could account for why this constant appears in so many equations. But what could hold these particles together? It could not be any force that reaches through absolute empty space. Perhaps the particles have a sticky surface and simply stick together.

Four diamentional space? In order to draw transversal waves of a one dimensional object like a string requires two dimensions. In order to draw transversal waves of a two dimensional object like the surface of water, requires three dimensions. It stands to reason that in order to draw a transversal wave of a three dimensional object like an electromagnetic wave, requires four dimensions. Thus our universe may consist of four spatial dimensions. But if everything in the universe has a forth spatial dimension, why can not we see it. Perhaps, movement through the ether causes the relativity effects. Maybe every thing in the universe is constantly moving through space with the speed of light. Then lengths in the direction of that movement would be reduced to zero. This would leave only 3 dimensions visible. The direction of this movement for each object could be called its time axis. The movement between objects is due to the angle between the object's time axis. This would match the Minkowski diagram

In this article we have seen how electromagnetic waves from these different points in a light source pass through each other they create both positive and negative interference in the wave's amplitude. This interference creates discrete wave packets of energy. These packets of energy are photons. The amplitude (charge) of the waves in these packets is much greater than a single wave front. Thus they act like particles and are able to knock electrons off the surface of metal.

Many electromagnetic waves can pass through the same volume of space at the same time. These disturbances in space can pass through each other, and after doing so continue on unaffected by the encounter. As they pass through each other, due to the principle of superposition, the total amount of charge is the algebraic sum of all the charges in that space at that time. If the total sum of the electric charge equals the elementary charge e which equals 1.6021892 x 10^-10 coul, then the electromagnetic waves cannot pass this point. All of the waves will be reflected from this maximum peak point in space. This maximum peak charge becomes the origin of a new electromagnetic wave, radiating in all directions away from that point.

If we have two maximum charges that occur 1/2 wavelength apart and peak 1/2 period apart they will trap the waves between them. When the wavelength of the electromagnetic is the right length, then these charges are self sustaining.

When the wave front from wave A has traveled ½ wave length from its origin, it reaches the point where the wave B had started one period ago. At this point the oscillation from wave B is at its peak. The addition of the charge of A's wave front and the charge of B's oscillation equals the maximum charge e. This maximum peak charge becomes the origin of a new electromagnetic wave B, radiating in all directions away from that point. In turn when the wave front from wave B has traveled ½ wave length it reaches the point where the wave A had started one period ago. At this point the oscillation from wave A is at its peak. The addition of the charge of B's wave front and the charge of A's oscillation equals the maximum charge e. This maximum peak charge becomes the origin of a new electromagnetic wave A, radiating in all directions away from that point. Thus, a new electromagnet wave is created every ½ period and ½ wave length apart. Thus, the wavical is electromagnetic waves reflecting back and forth between critical points. This energy is localized as a particle.

The waves emanating from the wavical transport an electric charge through space. These waves of charge affect other wavicals. Two positive charged wavicals repel each other. A positive wavical and a negative wavical will attract each other. If they are the same size they will come together and their critical peaks will cancel each other releasing all the waves. Two proton wavicals will repel each other, unless they are close enough to form a single wave group with two positive critical peaks and one negative critical peak (a proton-neutron pair, a deuterium nucleus). This is an explanation for the nuclear force.

We have seen a possible explanation of the Pauli exclusion principle. A suggestion of how gravity may be the result of bodies of matter shielding each other from external radiation. Our universe may be a ball of ether floating in a sea of nothing. The big bang may be the result of our universe, a big ball of ether colliding with another big ball of ether. The resulting waves from this collision created all the matter in the universe that we see today.