America meets Japan

Beginning of United States/Japan Relations: How a Modern Country opens Negotiations with a Medieval Nation

Japan was a country with ancient practices and closed to the world with a feudal system of government. The United States possessed the exact opposite: a democracy with a capitalistic economy embracing technology and industrialization. Capitalism required new market sources in order to expand; it was inevitable for the United States to extend its market overseas to Japan. Manifest Destiny did not stop with westward expansion to the Pacific. Manifest Destiny was intended to expand beyond the ocean to the Orient. This paper will show that American westward expansion intended to reach Japan.

Commodore Matthew Perry was the leader of the first official trade mission from the United States to Japan in 1952. He returned two years later to finalize negotiations. A British diplomat stationed in Japan shows us how Perry initially made contact. The diplomat stated that Perry’s visit was “such a show of force that with reasonable people, unfamiliar with modern artillery, might prove as powerful an argument as the theories of brotherhood.”[1] The Japanese were persuaded by the large naval fleet to join the international world. This large show of force demonstrated that the United States was quite adamant about opening trade.

America’s intention to trade with Japan did not begin with Perry’s visit. It actually began half a century earlier with an American president. The first document that contained information on Pacific expansion was from Thomas Jefferson in 1803. He wrote to Meriwether Lewis explaining that their mission was to find a water route to the Pacific. Jefferson also specifically instructed that this route must be practical and direct for the purpose of commerce.[2] At the beginning of the nineteenth century, there was no large settlement in the section of the continent that Jefferson had referred to. Since there was no one to have commerce with, he obviously intended to open up trade with someone beyond the American continent. Europe was easily accessible through the Atlantic, therefore he had no intention of using this new route for European trade. Obviously, Jefferson intended to open trade with Asia. [3]

America became interested in expansion early in the nineteenth century. The country was a new nation, but not taken seriously by the rest of the world. The War of 1812 forged a nationalistic spirit. Expansion westward and southward began. Florida was acquired with the aid of Andrew Jackson and the negotiations of John Quincy Adams. This new state added sea ports to the east coast of the continent. This shifted the American focus from inward to global. Efficient transportation to foreign countries was the first step towards increasing access to outside markets. During the first half of the nineteenth century, the ship was the only method of transportation. Therefore, the acquisition of as many ports as possible was a necessity. Transportation to each port also needed to be improved in order to move goods more efficiently. The Market Revolution brought on canals and railroads to improve surface transportation between oceans. Steamboats traveled down these canals. Communication through Morse’s code was a reality across the continent. Politics and the changing economy kept people occupied. As the nation focused on inward (North American continent) expansion, external affairs were ignored.[4]

With the acquisition of California, the United States had territory from sea to sea and gained the initiative to focus internationally. French, Spanish and British powers were derived from powerful navies and through merchant shipping. Control of the sea was power and a strong nation needed ports. Access to the Pacific coast was necessary to achieve this goal. America was the shining example of a new democracy. The country was successful because of this new system. The European system of mercantilism was not as efficient as the laissez faire methods of a free market. America was preparing for an outward expansion.

James Buchanan, then Secretary of State, stated in 1845 “The interests of our commerce and our whale fisheries on the Pacific Ocean demand that you (Thomas Larkin, an American in Mexico) should exert the greatest vigilance in discovering and defeating any attempts which may be made by foreign governments to acquire a control over that country.”[5] He was referring to California and its seaports with excellent bays. San Diego and San Francisco were the locations necessary for achieving access to the Pacific. Unfortunately, these ports were owned by Mexico. The United States attempted to obtain California through diplomatic negotiation without success. The next step was through force. Both California and Florida were acquired in this manner. This reflects America’s methods for dealing with foreign nations during this time period. The same method was used with Japan. California was annexed through the Mexican-American War. The ease of conquest gave America confidence in its military ability to intimidate nations into diplomacy.

James Polk’s Inaugural Address in 1945, hinted at “intercourse with foreign countries”.[6] America already had trade with China and Europe, but not with Japan. He was quite adamant when he stated that “no opportunity would be lost to cultivate a favorable understanding with foreign governments by which our navigation and commerce may be extended and the ample products of our fertile soil, as well as the manufactures of our skillful artisans, find a ready market and remunerating prices in foreign countries”[7] Polk wanted to obviously expand trade with foreign countries in order to sell American manufactured goods. Since Europe already manufactured its own goods, he must have been referring to a country such as Japan. It was virgin soil for business. Polk also mentioned that trade was going to be done by navigation, foreshadowing that ships would be utilized.

There was no American annexation or expansion throughout the 1850s. During this time period, America began making contact with Japan. Traditionally, America traded with Europe but there was always hostility. European nations (especially Britain and France) were always at war and trying to drag America into the middle. The Monroe Doctrine encouraged America to avoid entanglements with Europe. Trade with Mexico was also greatly diminished as a result of the Mexican- American War. The popularity of travel by steamship made long distance trade by water more accessible. Asia seemed the obvious choice for a new trading partner. The United States already had a fleet of large cargo ships for the movement of goods: therefore, it began looking for a new route to the orient.

Moby Dick was published in 1851. This book was inspired by the sinking of a whale ship. It reflects the popularity of whaling during this time period. Whaling was a multimillion dollar business. As mentioned earlier, the American Government was interested in whaling. It was one of the motives of obtaining the Pacific ports. The Atlantic was being over fished by whalers; therefore new territory was needed to provide whales. America looked to Japan for a new source of large ocean mammals. Japan was once open to foreign trade, but eventually closed its doors to the world and adopted a xenophobic attitude. A revolt by Japanese Christians exacerbated the animosity towards outsiders (especially from Christian nations). China was the only country that directly traded with Japan. The Dutch were allowed to trade once a year, but were confined to a tiny island and were not allowed to enter the country.[8]

American trade in the orient had been established already through China. Goods (mainly animal skins) were purchased from North America and exported to the orient. China would sell or trade tea and silk. A xenophobic Japan was in-between these two trading partners and had no contact with the outside world. Shipwrecked Japanese seamen were not allowed to return to their homeland. This was a method of protecting the country from outsiders. One of the first outsiders to break this protective barrier was Ranald Macdonald.[9]

Macdonald was the son of a Hudson’s Bay Company trader. He had a daring sense of adventure and became one of the first people from North America to enter Japan. Macdonald wrote a detailed account of his stay in Japan which included a description of the treatment of sailors. His depiction would later influence American negotiations. This account also showed why the use of a large naval force was a necessity for negotiating. Macdonald met a group of displaced Japanese seaman at Fort Vancouver on the Columbia River.[10] These foreign sailors were transporting rice to Edo (present day Tokyo), when their ship became disabled. They were caught at sea by a current that travels to Alaska and eventually ended up on the Pacific coast of North America (near present day Washington State). Macdonald developed a fascination with this group of lost sailors and a greater interest in the land that they came from. He decided that he would one day visit this unique and far off land. [11]

Macdonald’s actions reflected American tenacity towards Japan. He was well aware that his welcome could have been death, but his curiosity overrode his sense of self preservation. This contrasts America’s official visits that were prepared to fight with canons, if necessary as shown by Commodore Perry’s visit with an armed naval fleet. Macdonald’s account showed that American communication with Japan was unavoidable. He had nothing to gain, other than satisfying his curiosity of visiting a new unique nation. A business, such as whaling, would obviously be more tenacious than Macdonald. Since whaling was so lucrative, the American government had great motivation to become involved. According to Macdonald, whaling was very easy and more profitable on the sea near Japan. There was an abundance of creatures to be harpooned. There was no need to look for them or hunt them down. Macdonald wrote “we had nothing to do but to lower our boats, harpoon them and bring them alongside for stripping”.[12] This must have made whaling in Japan seem irresistible to desperate seaman. This was a multimillion dollar business. The Plymouth had obtained about seventy five thousand dollars worth of whale oil. That was a considerable amount of money (for mid nineteenth century) and from only one ship. It could be compared to the California gold rush. Imagine an endless supply of whales, just waiting to be harpooned and skinned at your convenience. It would have been impossible to keep whalers away from Japan at this point.[13]

Macdonald’s intention was to pretend to be a distressed sailor, who became shipwrecked off the coast of Japan. He signed on to the whaling ship entitled the Plymouth as a harpooner. The money he earned as a harpooner was used to purchase a small vessel to carry out his plan. Edwards the captain of the Plymouth considered Macdonald crazy and tried, unsuccessfully, to talk him out of it. Macdonald set himself afloat, alone in his tiny vessel, five miles from the northern coast of Japan. Macdonald had heard stories of the cruelty inflicted by the Japanese towards sailors including death. He therefore practiced capsizing his boat to make his distress appear as realistic as possible. Unfortunately, this practice lost a great deal of his equipment and supplies.[14]

After coming across several deserted islands, Macdonald finally made contact with a group of people. This group was a northern tribal people similar to the Inuit called the Ainu. They had been subjugated by the Japanese. These people were friendly, unlike the stories he had heard earlier. The Japanese considered foreigners to be barbarians. They were shocked by Macdonald’s supply of pork and beef. Animals slaughtered for the manufacture of leather goods were not eaten in Japan.[15]

After two weeks, a group of soldiers arrived to take Macdonald away to another village. His transportation had curtains to prevent him from seeing the village. He was eventually transferred to a prison. Macdonald was given food, tobacco and allowed to exercise, indicating a contradiction to the stories of mistreatment. He was again transferred, by boat, to another prison. Macdonald found out that other American prisoners (crew of the Lagoda) had been housed at his new location. This prison was located near the island that Japan used to trade with the Dutch and the Chinese. The Chinese brought stories of Britain and their opium trade wars.[16] This obviously made the Japanese more fearful of the outside world. Macdonald was taken to the local governor and asked to place his foot on the image of the devil in Japan. This image turned out to be the Virgin and Child. This showed Japan’s animosity towards Christianity.[17]

On April 17, 1849, the warship Preble arrived from America under the command of James Glynn.[18] This vessel was on a mission to demand the release of whalers from the Lagoda who were held captive in Japan. Macdonald was brought to the governor’s mansion with thirteen American sailors (Lagoda’s crew), that he had never previously met. This group of men appeared pale and malnourished according to Macdonald. He gathered information from these fellow Americans. He found out that the Dutch attempted to take the prisoners out of the country, but was not given permission by the Japanese. These sailors were kept outdoors in cages, because of several escape attempts. Exposure to the elements caused illness and even death amongst the prisoners. This mistreatment would obviously not sit well with the American populace and encouraged the government intervention. The Dutch superintendent wrote to the United States explaining the situation. Glynn arrived to demand the release of the sailors. Commodore Geisinger, who sent Glynn to Japan, stated that “the protection of our valuable whaling fleet and the encouragement of the whale fishery, are objects of deep interest in our government”.[19]

Glynn was greeted with a message wrapped around a bamboo stick that was thrown onto his ship. His ship was also surrounded by smaller Japanese guard boats. Glynn eventually came face to face with the Japanese, but they questioned the need for a warship so far from America. Glynn replied that men-of-war are there to protect American merchants and citizens. Glynn and his 18 gun, 123 foot warship, were ordered to negotiate peacefully. The crew of the Lagoda and Macdonald were eventually brought to the Preble after several days of haggling with the Japanese.[20]

One of the reasons America entered the War of 1812 was the impressment of seaman into the British Navy. Treatment of American sailors in Japan was much harsher. Even death could be the result of being shipwrecked. Macdonald gave a detailed account of his stay in Japan as a prisoner. Information of the treatment of the sailors from the Lagoda was also widely publicized. America had its pretext to make contact with the Japanese. Protection of Sailors was a priority as shown by the first treaty between Japan and the United States. Articles III, IV, and V deal specifically with the treatment of shipwrecked Americans.[21]

There was unrest in China during 1953; therefore American merchant vessels wanted the United States Navy to protect them. Instead of going to China, Commodore Perry ordered all the naval vessels of his fleet, to Japan. The commodore felt that “commercial relations with this country (Japan) at present on a comparatively (compared to China) favorable footing, with prospective promises of a greater advantage”.[22] Perry’s words show that he felt that Japan had more potential for trade and commerce. The action of sending the navy to Japan showed his confidence of this new market. Perry was willing to sacrifice Chinese trade in order to complete his mission.[23]

The Treaty of Kanagawa was signed on March 31, 1854, officially opening trade between the United States and Japan. There was no single individual event that led America to Japan, but a combination of many events. The primary motive was financial, but several measures were necessary to ensure the fluidity of trade. Sailors trading and whaling needed protection. The United States was expanding its market and commerce beyond its borders as it ran out of land. Securing the Japanese market, prior than competing nations, was a necessity to be considered a powerful country. Negotiations with Japan were inevitable, in order for America to continue expansion beyond its Pacific coastal borders.

[1] Ernest Satow. A Diplomat in Japan. (Philadelphia: J.B. Lippincot Company), p. 42

[2] Thomas Jefferson. Letter to To Meriwether Lewis esquire, Captain of the 1st regiment of infantry of the United States of America (June 20, 1803)

[3] John L. Allen. An Analysis of the Exploratory Process: The Lewis and Clark Expidition of 1804-1806. Geographical Review, Vol. 62 No. 1 (Jan. 1972), p. 18

[4] Daniel Feller. The Jacksonian Promise America, 1815-1840. (John Hopkins University Press, 1995) pp.14-32

[5] James Buchanan. Manifest Destiny (Indianapolis: Macmillan Publishing, 1968) p. 557

[6] James Knox Polk. Inaugural Address. ( March 4, 1845)

[7] Ibid.

[8] Peter B. Wiley. Yankees in the Land of the Gods. (New York: Penguin Books, 1990) p. 3

[9] Ibid., p. 10

[10] Ibid.

[11] Ibid.

[12] Ibid., p.6

[13] Ibid.

[14] Ibid., pp.12-13

[15] Ibid.

[16] Ibid., p.17

[17] Ibid.,

[18] Ibid., p.22

[19] Ibid., pp. 25-26

[20] Ibid. p. 22

[21] Empire of Japan Treaty, Kanagawa, March 31, 1854

[22] Chester A. Bain. Commodore Matthew Perry, Humphrey Marshall, and the Taiping Rebellion. The Far East Quarterly, Vol. 10, No. 3 (May 1951) p. 263

[23] Ibid.

Bibliography

Allen John L. An Analysis of the Exploratory Process: The Lewis and Clark Expidition of 1804-1806. Geographical Review, Vol. 62 No. 1 (Jan. 1972), pp. 13 - 39

Bain. Commodore Matthew Perry, Humphrey Marshall, and the Taiping Rebellion. The Far East Quarterly, Vol. 10, No. 3 (May 1951). pp. 258 - 270

Buchanan, James. Manifest Destiny. Indianapolis: Macmillan Publishing, 1968. p.557

Empire of Japan Treaty. Kanagawa, March 31, 1854. Treaty between the United States of America and the Empire of Japan. U.S. Sen., Exec. Docs., 33rd, 2^nd (1854-5), Vol. 6, #34, pp. 153-5

http://web.jjay.cuny.edu/%7Ejobrien/reference/ob25.html

Feller. The Jacksonian Promise America, 1815-1840. Baltimore: John Hopkins University Press, 1995 pp. 14-32

Jefferson, Thomas. Letter to To Meriwether Lewis esquire, Captain of the 1st regiment of infantry of the United States. June 20, 1803.

http://www.loc.gov/exhibits/jefferson/168.html

Polk, James Knox. Inaugural Address. Senate document (United States. Congress. Senate); 101–10. PUBLISHED:Washington, D.C.: U.S. G.P.O, March 4, 1845

http://www.bartleby.com/br/124.html

Satow, Ernest. A Diplomat in Japan. Philadelphia: J.B. Lippincot Company, 1973 Wiley, Peter B. Yankees in the Land of the Gods. New York: Penguin Books, 1990